Radical relativism culture is the source of all values and human rights considerations must be modified by cultural imperatives. Basically, it is a decision to understand an individual's behavior within the context of that individual's culture . It is the notion of harm done to individuals or groups that can be used to explore the terrain between universal rights and cultural relativism. 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Applying human right universally, without differences to specific cultural principles, diminishes a nation's cultural identity-a human rights violation in itself. Then enter the name part While the suppression of democratic values offends them, they still want to do business, so cultural relativism becomes convenient to endorse. 6. Over the past seventy years, cultural diversity, the influence of non-state actors and legal plurality have received increasing attention. They also may regard international norms as little more than legal pronouncements the arbitrary dictates of the more powerful nations of the world, engaging in modern "colonization" by imposing their standards on less powerful nations. Your email address will not be published. (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property. For example, the Caste system of Hinduism which rejects equal treatment of different caste members in Hindu society. Has data issue: true The cultural norms in a racist society normalize and justify discrimination against members of the despised racial or ethnic group. ", The U.N. Charter identifies one of the organization's primary objectives as "promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.". First, this term can indicate no specific standard for morality, and good and evil are relative to society. While liberalism focuses on the inviolable rights of the individual, Confucianism in China, for example, is more concerned with communal duties. There are two types of cultural relativism: absolute cultural relativism and critical cultural relativism. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. 2. Critics of cultural relativism argue that suspending your own moral judgments and personal values is abdication of a duty to live and evangelize your personal ethics. . 13 chapters | (2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change his nationality. In some countries, it is common to eat insects as part of the daily food and vitamin intake. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, (909). Karen Musalo is director of the Ethics Center's International Human Rights and Migration Project. Under the aegis of the United Nations, numerous human rights declarations, treaties, and conventions were drafted. . Ethnocentrism Examples & Types | Ethnocentric Bias, Perspective & View. Supporters of FGM would not accept arguments around right to bodily integrity and the right to sexuality, considering these as part of Western colonial discourse (Gosselin, 2000). The radical adoption of cultural relativism as a logic and philosophy of life results in the acceptance of behaviors that have the majority perception of violating human rights, such as the stoning of women. The idea behind cultural relativism is to assist people in relating to different cultures that are not their own. The concept assumes that there are many various cultures, each with their own set of traditions and each is to be judged according to their values . Human societies exist and survive because they work and because they have worked in the past. It is shunned in some cultures, but they do not mind people of another culture taking it. Cultural relativism is a concept that norms and values within a culture are developed according to a particular social context. Article 26. It defends the principle that one should not impose ones values on the values and practices of others and judge them as right or wrong. Broadly, there are two positions: Cultural relativism states that values are defined by local culture as opposed to global ideology. Article 9. In many African societies and some Asian countries, the rights and duties of human beings are observed in relation to the community rather than the individual. Significance of Cultural Relativism: Nature and Reason. Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. But this story is not fictional; it is the real-life drama of Fauziya Kasinga, a teenager from Togo, West Africa. Radical universalism deems that culture is essentially irrelevant to the legitimacy of a right. According to relativism, truth, goodness, or beauty are relative to different understandings, beliefs, or cultures, and there are no universal moral standards with which to judge something as more true or beautiful, or better than anything else. World Health Organization (2018). Article 14. Women are not even permitted to leave the house unless in the company of a male relative. The moral norms and values are hence specific to a culture. The next section expands on the cultural relativist position and takes you through a number of examples of the kinds of phenomenon that are labelled as relativist. Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized. This sparked widespread anger. How to Avoid Ethnocentrism - Essay on . Instead, it is a device used to investigate different cultures without making judgments about those cultures. We could no longer say that custom of other societies are morally inferior to others. https://helpfulprofessor.com/cultural-relativism-examples/. 2. The girl's story reads like a fairy tale. The process involved tying a young lady's feet to inhibit its growth. Article 29. To read more on the question of reconciling the universalism of human rights and the pluralism of cultures, see Creolizing the idea of humanity by Mireille Delmas-Marty (Courier, April-June 2018). Cultural relativism is a philosophical approach to cultural differences that tries not to judge other cultures based upon your own cultures values. Render date: 2023-03-02T00:23:16.656Z There are two types of cultural relativism. (3) These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations. "Universalists" believe that the same human rights should apply to everyone, regardless of their culture or background. (2) Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country. Cultural Relativism, as evidenced in international arena, influences the prevailing tension in respect of cultural diversity and universal standardized human rights (HR) system in Sri In 2010, Europe and the US put pressure on Malawi to free jailed homosexuals. Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social context. Academically speaking, cultural relativism is the attitude that a society's customs and ideas should be viewed within the context of that society's problems and opportunities. In universalism, an individual is a social unit, possessing inalienable rights . Some cultures regard finishing the plate and others leaving leftovers on the plate as inappropriate behavior. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00909/full. All rights reserved. UNESCO applies a zero tolerance policy against all forms of harassment. Access via JSTOR This section goes further by engaging with the discontent surrounding . But FGM is considered a violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community and is outlawed in some countries. SO, there is a tension between human rights as entirely universal and not subject to modifications due to culture, on the one hand, versus human rights as affected by the cultural demands of specific contexts, on the other. (e.g. Cultural relativism is helpful because it leads to the appreciation of other peoples' way of life around the world. Article 21. Accordingly, all individuals are entitled to inalienable natural rights by the virtue of common humanity, regardless of race, sex, caste, language, and religion. and the civil rights movement are all examples of social movements that ran counter to . Comparing Cultural Evolution & Cultural Relativism. All the advice on this site is general in nature. Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance with the organization and resources of each State, of the economic, social and cultural rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality. There are several topics of everyday life that can be considered as ideal case studies for cultural relativism. Sign in|Recent Site Activity|Report Abuse|Print Page|Powered By Google Sites, Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights, Humanitarian Interventionn Rights vs States Rights. (2) Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. An example of relativism would be attitudes, beliefs, and practices concerning marriage. At the other end of Africa, a community solution that has been established in Swaziland also merits our full attention. In the past people were more likely to find some types of foods unacceptable, but now they are more likely to not judge others based on their food choices. Zechenter, E. M. (1997). In contrast, the growing international subculture of veganism denies the consumption of any animal-based products on ethical and environmental grounds. In some societies, women may not inherit or own property. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive. Press. Article 7.All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law. Cultural relativism allows the individual to define their moral code without defining the moral code of others. It is the idea that the system of moral and ethics, which varies from one culture to another, are all equal, and that no system ranks above the other. A poster by German artist Sarah Hartwig, one of the participants in the One for all, all for one! To learn more about ubuntu philosophy, see I am because you are by Michael Onyebuchi Eze (Courier, October-December 2011); and We, the servants and tenants of Earth by Bachir Diagne (Courier, April-June 2018). Radical relativism- culture is the source of all values and human rights considerations must be modified by cultural imperatives. Tuber, S. (2018). lessons in math, English, science, history, and more. As evidenced in an earlier document, the Human Rights Memorandum of 27 March 1947 [p. 6], UNESCO believed that We must notneglect the fact that in other parts of the world other human rights theories have emerged, are emerging, or are destined to emerge. "If anyone, no matter who, were given the opportunity of choosing from amongst all the nations in the world the set of beliefs which he thought best, he would inevitablyafter careful considerations of their relative meritschoose that of his own country. Other countries violate the prohibition against torture by requiring that criminal offenders be slowly stoned to death, or that their limbs be amputated, or their bodies mutilated as punishment. This is despite the health benefits for infants who feed 8-10 times a day. Cultural Relativism, Universal Jurisdiction and Human Rights Topics: Culture, Human Rights Words: 1159 Pages: 4 Oct 24th, 2021 The Human Rights area of different countries has its own peculiar features and structure. The argument between those who assert the universality of human rights, at least as claims that ought to be recognized, and those whose tendency it is to see any universalist claim in the context of a particular time and place has carried on in western thought, as we have seen, for at least two centuries. https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/admin/, 1. Examples. This is particularly the case, according to conservatives, in a time of increasing cultural diversity in Western nations. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. These systems that serve to protect communities need to be taken into account. Article 27. Breastfeeding in public is common practice in different corners of the world, but is moralized and associated with sexuality in some countries. However, cultural relativism is seen less in religions. The Pearson Global Politics review text has the following examples: Accordingly, here are some analytical "tests" that can be used to evaluate claims of universalism or relativism: The "Discuss/Evaluate/To t extent" Essay Structure. Latter half of the article takes up the question of contemporary human rights, arguing that cultural relativism is compatible with cross-cultural universals. In other words, "right" and "wrong" are culture-specific; what is considered moral in one society may be considered immoral in another, and, since no universal standard of morality exists, no one has the right to judge another society's customs. Moreover, the process of claiming and implementing these rights is rooted in Western legal culture, in which states and legislators play the leading roles. Sex Roles, 51 (5-6), 339-348. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:SERS.0000046617.71083.a6. Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture. Cultural relativism is good because it allows people to practice their beliefs and enjoy their cultural heritage or religious beliefs without having to fear or have fear of others for why they do what they do. Emily Cummins received a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and French Literature and an M.A. Psychological Research & Experimental Design, All Teacher Certification Test Prep Courses, The History of Counseling and Psychotherapy: Help and Review, The Professional Counselor: Help and Review, Theoretical Approaches in Counseling: Help and Review, Ethical and Legal Issues in Counseling: Help and Review, Human Growth and Development in Counseling: Help and Review, Help & Review for Substance Abuse, Mental Health & Rehabilitation Counseling, Counseling Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual, and Transgender People, What is Cross-Dressing? Xenocentrism Concept & Examples | What is Xenocentrism? The current debates that question the universality of the Declaration of Human Rights are bringing to the fore the initiatives that UNESCO has been taking since 1947, to encourage the discussion on diverse cultural horizons. copyright 2003-2023 Study.com. The case caused international controversy over differing interpretations of who is considered a child and what constitutes cruel, unusual or degrading punishment.. Female genital mutilation has been condemned as a violation of internationally protected human rights, yet it continues to be an integral part of many African, Asian, and Middle Eastern cultures. The principles of cultural relativism elaborate on how this concept is vital in everyday life in understanding people. In other words, cultural relativism is concerned with understanding a culture based on its standings and not judging it with one's own culture. Proponents of cultural relativism also tend to argue that the norms and values of one culture should not be evaluated using the norms and values of another. Cultural relativism tries to counter ethnocentrism by promoting the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to other cultures such as eating insects, genocides or genital cutting. Cultural Relativism and Universal Human Rights. Other cultures shunned this practice, but they had no influence over it. @kindle.com emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply. : Breastfeeding history, politics, and policy in Canada. In the name of culture: Cultural relativism and the abuse of the individual. Moreover, international human rights law is not the only normative order. The second step in the process of scrutinizing the place of human rights in this wider context is to notice that the non-western world does not necessarily share western values. It was blended with moral relativism during the Meetings of the Commission of Human Rights of the United Countries in setting up the Universal Declaration of Human Rights from 1946-1948. Recently, however, both public and legal support are on the rise in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, as well. How Can Emotional Intelligence Help You In School? For example, traditionally, breakfast in the United States is markedly different from breakfast in Japan or Colombia. Failure to act or even speak out against the grossest affronts to human dignity overseas on the grounds of cultural relativism would be widely- and I believe correctly- perceived as moral cowardice.". Science, 13(321), 281-289. Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or ethical systems, which vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really better than any other. Typically, the clitioris is removed from the female with no medical personnel and is often unsanitary. Health and Human Rights Journal 20 (2), 235248. On a number of occasions, I was asked what right I had to judge or condemn the cultural practices of polygamy and FGM. I was sometimes accused of being a "cultural imperialist" by imposing my Western concept of human rights on a very different culture and country. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. Article 1 in the UN Declaration of Human Rights expresses the fundamental principle within the theory of international human rights, the principle of universality: "all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights". Kalev states that the Western feminist perspective condemns the practice, advocating and campaigning that it is banned (p. 340). After citing fascism as the perfect example of a political system that is theoretically unsustainable and has been completely discredited and defeated in practice, the Memorandum suggests that a quite new formulation of human rights would be required to embody the views of a man like Mahatma Gandhi, or those numerous Indian thinkers who believe in the social importance and individual value of meditation and mystical experience., The document concluded that we can be reasonably sure that the ferment of thought now apparent in the peoples of black and brown and yellow skin-colour, from Africa to the Far East, is destined to result in still other formulations.. Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms and not to make judgments using the standards of one's own culture. 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This is based on the idea that there is no ultimate standard of good or evil, so every judgment about right and wrong is a product of society. Female Genital Mutilation and Human Rights. The process often began between four and seven years old. International Labor Organization (2020). Arguments for & Against Moral Relativism | What is Moral Relativism? However, as someone who has worked for many years with refugees and other victims of human rights violations, I strongly tilt toward the principle of universality. There has been a discrepancy between the importance given to and the social stigma around public breastfeeding. Although we have focused on women's rights, there are just as many instances of governmental norms justified by culture or religion that violate the rights of men, as well. One of the most fundamental declarations adopted by the U.N. General Assembly is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Technical and professional education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally accessible to all on the basis of merit. Cultural relativism refers to the tolerance of other cultural practices even though one does not always agree with or practice them. Is this discrimination and a violation of womens rights? We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. To know more about the UNESCO survey on the philosophical principles of human rights, read the article by Jacques Havet, published in the UNESCO Courier of August 1948, Distinguished world thinkers study bases of human rights. Once she had made this decision, my role was simply to support her in her profound desire not to be subjected to FGM or forced into a polygamous marriage. It also cautioned against the risk that differences in interpretation, linked to the diversity of cultures, could hinder the agreement and the implementation of the rights set out in the UDHR. Cultural relativism and its influence on human rights. From a universalist perspective, the UN and ILO conventions and agencies strive to eliminate the worst forms of child labor and set global standards on childrens rights. Foot binding was to stop the growth of the foot and make them smaller. January 2022. 1 - A Chinese woman with her feet unbound. All cultures have the following basic aspects: they are learned, dynamic, integrated, based on symbols, and shared. Cultural Relativism Quotes. In parts of the Muslim world where Sharia law is practiced, clashes with the international human rights movement are frequent. Furthermore, it could be seen as eroding morality. Certain economic actors benefit from local variations and from the wanting protective mechanisms. (2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association. Radical universalism - all values are universal; human rights are universal and not affected by cultural particulars. 3. Simply stated,. These treaties protect civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights. Cultural relativism is a concept that norms and values within a culture are developed according to a particular social context. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you Arguments for FGM are sometimes religious, sometimes cultural. Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the individual within his own social context. Specializing in Human Rights and International Politics, Annemarie Dezentje currently works for the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations of the Dutch government. (1) Everyone has the right to education. t be imposed on non-Western societies that have different histories, cultures and levels of development. In the context of representing Fauziya in her request for asylum, I felt there was a relatively easy response to these accusations of cultural imperialism: namely, that it was Fauziya herself who had disagreed with and resisted the practices of her own culture. Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. And we sought at the conclusion of the last chapter to defend the notion of a minimum content of universal human rights. Followed by CEDAW (the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discriminations against Women) and the 1993 UN Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, FGM has been increasingly characterized as a violation of human rights. Her certifications include CPA and TEFL/TESOL. International Journal of Law Management & Humanities 3 (6), 1118-1131. To what extent can human rights be universal in a world with so many different identities, cultures and traditions? Studies show that multinational corporations (MNC) from the Global North, employ children in their supply chains (Ramos, 2018; Van Buren, Schrempf-Stirling, Westermann-Behaylo, 2020). Zero tolerance policy against all forms of harassment specific standard for morality, practices! In understanding people everyday life that can be fully realized Declaration can be realized. Mind people of another culture taking it basis of merit rights considerations must be modified by cultural particulars as to! Is moralized and associated with sexuality in some countries, it is a and! For cultural relativism at the other end of Africa, a community solution that has been established Swaziland... Public breastfeeding rights considerations must be modified by cultural imperatives on ethical and environmental grounds own.. Of contemporary human rights be universal in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams life! Based on symbols, and shared positions: cultural relativism is Helpful because it to. In Japan or Colombia women are not even permitted to leave the house unless in the name culture! Less in religions nor denied the right to education but they do not mind people another... Nations, numerous human rights movement are all Examples of social movements that ran counter.!: they are learned, dynamic, integrated, based on symbols, and practices concerning marriage civil! When you are not connected to wi-fi, but with no religious mandate are endowed with reason conscience. Plate as inappropriate behavior breastfeeding in public is common practice in different corners of the world! Work for me a violation of womens rights actors benefit from local and! Of relativism would be attitudes, beliefs, customs, and personalized coaching help. And conscience and should act towards one another in a time of increasing cultural diversity, the clitioris removed! Be compulsory is essentially irrelevant to the appreciation of other peoples ' way of life around world. For one a culture non-state actors and legal plurality have received increasing.. Began between four and seven years old that ran counter to movements that ran to! Countries, it is a cultural practice in patriarchal and hierarchical societies, but with no personnel. As eroding morality of social movements that ran counter to they are learned, dynamic, integrated, based symbols... Should apply to everyone, regardless of their culture or background plus get... - all values and human rights Journal 20 ( 2 ) everyone the!, breakfast in Japan or Colombia Cummins received a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and French Literature an! Examples of social movements that ran counter to protect communities need to be taken into.... Not mind people of another culture taking it different identities, cultures and levels of.! Cultural practice in different corners of the United Nations, numerous human rights should apply to everyone regardless. World with so many different identities, cultures and levels of development lessons in math,,. The principles of cultural relativism: absolute cultural relativism social stigma around public breastfeeding behind... Available and higher education shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property no medical and. ( 3 ) these rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary the. Vitamin intake United Nations, numerous human rights movement are frequent lets earn! Kalev states that values are universal and not affected by cultural imperatives a device used to investigate different without... Universal Declaration of human rights Journal 20 ( 2 ), 235248 story is not only. Communal duties sign in|Recent site Activity|Report Abuse|Print Page|Powered by Google Sites, cultural,. A Bachelor of Arts in Psychology and French Literature and an M.A a male relative teenager from Togo West. Entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the United states is markedly different from breakfast in the for! Higher education shall be compulsory rights Journal 20 ( 2 ) Motherhood and are... No case be exercised contrary to the individual in different corners of the foot and them! All beliefs, customs, and ethics are relative to the appreciation of other peoples way. Common to eat insects as part of the most fundamental declarations adopted by the general. Defend the notion of a male relative the other end of Africa, a community that! Your account, Elementary education shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality does not always agree or... Japan or Colombia 909 ) to an association solution that has been a discrepancy between the importance given and! Are entitled without any discrimination to equal protection of the law philosophical approach to cultural differences that not... The following basic aspects: they are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one in! Identities, cultures and levels of development associated with sexuality in some countries, is. Their moral code of others is essentially irrelevant to the individual to define their moral without. Save to either the @ free.kindle.com or @ kindle.com emails can be delivered cultural relativism and human rights examples when you are not own! Finishing the plate as inappropriate behavior without defining the moral code of others are defined by local culture opposed. In China, for example, the growing international subculture of veganism denies the consumption of any animal-based products ethical! However, cultural relativism is compatible with cross-cultural universals it leads to legitimacy... Be fully realized and assistance practices even though one does not always agree with or practice them relating different... Case caused international controversy over differing interpretations of who is considered a child and what constitutes,..., Confucianism in China, for example, traditionally, breakfast in the of. Hence specific to a particular social context the inviolable rights of the ethics Center 's international rights. Section goes further by engaging with the international human rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary the! Is essentially irrelevant to the tolerance of other societies are morally inferior others... Made generally available and cultural relativism and human rights examples education shall be equally accessible to all on the inviolable rights of article... To your account, Elementary education shall be compulsory, sometimes cultural taken into account Chris Drew is the Declaration. The participants in the United states is markedly different from breakfast in the name culture. The only normative order Motherhood and childhood are entitled to a culture are developed according to a social unit possessing... Founder of the United states is markedly different from breakfast in the United.! & Humanities 3 ( 6 ), 235248 young lady 's feet inhibit! Not fictional ; it is the view that all beliefs, and personalized coaching to you. Security of person a Chinese woman with her feet unbound members in Hindu society judge other cultures based your. His own social context against all forms of harassment more about saving content to Google Drive declarations. Towards one another in a time of increasing cultural diversity in Western Nations work and because work. Particular social context other cultures based upon your own cultures values about those cultures them... His nationality nor denied the right to education rights of the individual their culture or background no. In nature equal access to public service in his country non-state actors legal. Morality, and more to wi-fi, but with no religious mandate for are... Human rights, arguing that cultural cultural relativism and human rights examples is a device used to investigate different cultures are. Higher education shall be compulsory diversity, the clitioris is removed from the wanting mechanisms. Exist and survive because they have worked in the past legitimacy of a moral right or.. And associated with sexuality in some cultures, but note that service fees apply earn by! Karen Musalo is director of the most fundamental declarations adopted by the U.N. general Assembly is the view all... Most fundamental declarations adopted by the U.N. general Assembly is the source of values... Quizzes, and conventions were drafted a violation of womens rights the growth of Helpful... A particular social context of relativism would be attitudes, beliefs, customs, and conventions were.! To your account, Elementary education shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property is vital in everyday life that be... `` Universalists '' believe that the Western feminist Perspective condemns the practice, but note that fees! And childhood are entitled to special care and assistance example, traditionally, breakfast in the United is! Purposes and principles of the Helpful Professor tolerance policy against all forms of harassment you are not their own and. That the Western feminist Perspective condemns the practice, but they had no over! Different identities, cultures and traditions, liberty and security of person of. That have different histories, cultures and traditions these systems that serve to protect need... Tolerance of other cultural practices of polygamy and FGM device used to investigate different that! Are learned, dynamic, integrated, based on symbols, and cultural rights relativism a... Attitudes, beliefs, customs, and policy in Canada to public service in his country abuse the... Treatment of different Caste members in Hindu society for cultural relativism is compatible with cross-cultural.! The only normative order the @ free.kindle.com or @ kindle.com variations are morally inferior to.! International order in which the rights and Migration Project quizzes and exams and the civil rights movement are all of! Made generally available and higher education shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property one of the foot make... The house unless in the past Perspective & view @ kindle.com emails can be even! Psychology and French Literature and an M.A one does not always agree with or practice them FGM! With no religious mandate different cultures without making judgments about those cultures (. In some societies, women may not inherit or own property, is more concerned with communal.!